Sensory Processing

• Absolute threshold is the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
• Difference threshold (just noticeable difference) is the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.
• Weber’s Law is the principle that the just noticeable difference (JND) is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity.
• Signal Detection theory is a framework for understanding how we detect faint stimuli amidst background noise.
• Response Bias refers to the tendency to favor certain responses over others in the presence of uncertainty.

Vision (Psychological Aspects)

• Visual processing
• Light and color perception is controlled by the retina and the visual cortex.
• Photoreceptors (rods and cones) convert light into neural signals.
• Color vision is based on the trichromatic theory and opponent-process theory.
• Visual pathways in the brain
• The visual cortex processes visual information from the retina.
• Visual processing involves multiple stages, including feature detection and pattern recognition.
• Parallel processing
• Parallel processing refers to the simultaneous processing of multiple aspects of a stimulus.
• Feature detection involves the identification of specific visual features, such as edges, angles, and movement.
• The magnocellular pathway is responsible for processing motion and depth information.
• The parvocellular pathway is responsible for processing color and fine detail.

Hearing (Psychological Aspects)

• Auditory processing (e.g., auditory pathways in the brain)
• Sound waves are converted into neural signals by the cochlea.
• The auditory cortex processes auditory information from the cochlea.
• Auditory pathways in the brain involve multiple stages, including sound localization and frequency analysis.
• Impaired hearing can result in more mental health issues than impaired vision, such as depression and anxiety due to social isolation and communication difficulties.

Other Senses (Psychological Aspects)

• Kinesthetic sense is the awareness of body movement.
• Proprioceptive sense is the awareness of body position.
• Vestibular sense is the sense of balance and spatial orientation.

Perception

• Bottom-up processing is the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception without prior knowledge.
• Top-down processing is the use of pre-existing knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole.
• Perceptual organization
Monocular cues:
• Relative size is the perception that objects closer to us appear larger than those further away.
• Interposition is the perception that objects blocking others are closer to us.
• Relative clarity is the perception that clearer objects are closer, while hazy objects are further away.
• Texture gradient is the perception that objects with a coarse texture are closer, while those with a finer texture are further away.
• Relative height is the perception that objects higher in our field of vision are further away.
• Linear perspective is the perception that parallel lines appear to converge in the distance.
• Motion parallax is the perception that objects closer to us move faster than those further away as we move.
• Shading and contour are used to create the illusion of depth and three-dimensionality.
• Constancy is the perception that objects remain the same despite changes in sensory input.
• Binocular cues:
  • Retinal disparity is the difference in images between the two eyes, which helps us perceive depth.
  • Convergence is the inward angle of the eyes when focusing on a close object, which also aids in depth perception.
• Gestalt principles
• Proximity is the tendency to group nearby figures together.
• Similarity is the tendency to group similar figures together.
• Continuity is the tendency to perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.
• Closure is the tendency to fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.
• Pragnanz is the tendency to perceive complex images in the simplest form possible.

Attention

• Selective attention is the process of focusing on a particular object in the environment for a certain period of time.
• Divided attention is the ability to process multiple sources of information simultaneously.

Cognition

• Cognitive development is the process of growth and change in intellectual/mental abilities.
• Cognitive changes in late adulthood refer to the alterations in cognitive function that occur as people age.
• Role of culture in cognitive development emphasizes how cultural context influences cognitive processes.
• Influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development highlights the interplay between genetic and environmental factors.
• Biological factors that affect cognition include brain structure, neurotransmitters, and genetics.
• Problem-solving and decision-making involve cognitive processes used to identify and resolve issues.
• Intellectual functioning encompasses a range of cognitive abilities, including reasoning, problem-solving, and planning.

Consciousness

• States of consciousness
• Beta waves are associated with alertness and active thinking.
• Alpha waves are associated with relaxation and calmness.
• Theta waves are associated with light sleep and relaxation.
• Delta waves are associated with deep sleep and restorative processes.
• Sleep and circadian rhythms
• N1 is the lightest stage of sleep, where a person can be easily awakened.
• N2 is a deeper sleep stage characterized by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
• N3 is the deepest stage of non-REM sleep, important for restorative processes.
• REM sleep is associated with vivid dreaming and increased brain activity.
• Hypnosis and meditation can alter states of consciousness and promote relaxation.
• Consciousness-altering drugs
• Stimulants increase alertness and energy (e.g., caffeine, amphetamines).
• Depressants reduce anxiety and promote relaxation (e.g., alcohol, benzodiazepines).
• Hallucinogens alter perception and can induce hallucinations (e.g., LSD, psilocybin).
• Opioids relieve pain and can induce feelings of euphoria (e.g., morphine, heroin).
• Cannabis can have both stimulant and depressant effects, depending on the dose and individual response.

Memory

• Types of Memory
• Short-term memory holds information temporarily for processing.
• Iconic memory is a brief sensory memory for visual stimuli.
• Echoic memory is a brief sensory memory for auditory stimuli.
• Working memory is a system for temporarily holding and manipulating information.
• Phonological loop is a component of working memory that deals with auditory information.
• Visuospatial sketchpad is a component of working memory that deals with visual and spatial information.
• Central executive is the component of working memory that coordinates and manages the other components.
• Long term memory stores information more permanently.
• Encoding is the process of transforming information into a format that can be stored in memory.
• Storage is the process of maintaining information in memory over time.
• Retrieval is the process of accessing and bringing stored information into consciousness.
• Forgetting is the inability to retrieve information from memory.

Emotion

• Three components of emotion
• Physiological arousal refers to the body's physical response to an emotional stimulus.
• Cognitive appraisal is the mental evaluation of a situation that leads to an emotional response.
• Behavioral expression is the outward display of emotions through actions and facial expressions.
• Universal emotions
• Happiness is a positive emotional state characterized by feelings of joy and contentment.
• Sadness is a negative emotional state characterized by feelings of loss and disappointment.
• Fear is an emotional response to perceived threats or danger.
• Anger is an emotional response to perceived injustice or frustration.
• Disgust is an emotional response to something considered offensive or repulsive.
• Surprise is an emotional response to unexpected events or stimuli.
• Adaptive role of emotion
• Emotions help us respond to environmental challenges and opportunities.
• Emotions play a role in decision-making and social interactions.
• Emotions can influence memory and learning processes.

Stress

• The nature of stress
• Stress is a psychological and physiological response to perceived challenges or threats.
• Stressors are events or situations that trigger stress responses.
• Daily hassles, such as traffic jams and work deadlines, can contribute to stress.
• Catastrophic events, such as natural disasters or terrorist attacks, can lead to intense stress reactions.
• Chronic stressors, such as ongoing financial difficulties or caregiving responsibilities, can have a cumulative effect on stress levels.
• Environmental stressors, such as noise and pollution, can impact stress levels.
• Stress outcomes
• Acute stress can lead to immediate physiological responses, such as increased heart rate and adrenaline release.
• Chronic stress can have long-term effects on physical and mental health, including anxiety, depression, and cardiovascular issues.
• Managing stress
• Stress management techniques include relaxation exercises, mindfulness, and time management strategies.
• Social support and healthy coping mechanisms can help mitigate the effects of stress.

Language

• Influence of language on cognition
• Language can shape thought processes and influence perception.
• Language can affect memory and information retrieval.
• Brain areas that control language and speech
• Broca's area is involved in language production and speech articulation.
• Wernicke's area is involved in language comprehension and processing.
• The arcuate fasciculus is a bundle of axons that connects Broca's and Wernicke's areas.
• The angular gyrus is involved in reading and writing abilities.

Behavioral Influences

• Neuronal communication and its influence on behavior
• Neurons communicate through electrical impulses and chemical signals (neurotransmitters).
• Neurotransmitters play a crucial role in regulating mood, emotion, and behavior.
• Different neurotransmitters are associated with different behaviors and emotional responses.
• Serotonin is linked to mood regulation, while dopamine is associated with reward and pleasure.

Personality

• Personality is the unique and relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that characterize an individual.
• The situational approach to explaining behavior emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping behavior.

Psychological Disorders

• Personality disorders
• Cluster A
• Paranoid personality disorder is characterized by pervasive distrust and suspicion of others.
• Schizoid personality disorder involves a lack of interest in social relationships and emotional expression.
• Schizotypal personality disorder is marked by eccentric behavior, cognitive distortions, and social anxiety.
• Cluster B
• Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a disregard for the rights of others and a lack of empathy.
• Borderline personality disorder involves instability in relationships, self-image, and emotions.
• Histrionic personality disorder is marked by excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior.
• Narcissistic personality disorder involves a grandiose sense of self-importance and a need for admiration.
• Cluster C
• Avoidant personality disorder is characterized by social inhibition and feelings of inadequacy.
• Dependent personality disorder involves an excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive behavior.
• Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is marked by a preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control.
• Psychotic disorders
• Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder characterized by disturbances in thought, perception, and behavior.
• Neurodevelopmental disorders
• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by challenges in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.
• Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
• Trauma- and stressor-related disorders
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition triggered by experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event, leading to symptoms such as flashbacks, avoidance, and hyperarousal.
• Acute stress disorder is a short-term condition that occurs in response to a traumatic event, with symptoms similar to PTSD but lasting less than a month.
• Anxiety disorders
• Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized by excessive and uncontrollable worry about various aspects of life, leading to physical symptoms such as restlessness and fatigue.
• Social anxiety disorder involves intense fear and avoidance of social situations due to concerns about being judged or embarrassed.
• Specific phobias are irrational fears of specific objects or situations that lead to avoidance behavior.
• Agoraphobia is the fear of being in situations where escape might be difficult or help unavailable, leading to avoidance of public places.
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) involves intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) performed to reduce anxiety.
• Body dysmorphic disorder is characterized by an excessive preoccupation with perceived flaws in physical appearance, leading to distress and impairment in functioning.
• Hoarding disorder involves persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, leading to clutter and distress.
• Somatic symptom and related disorders
• Somatic symptom disorder involves experiencing physical symptoms that cause significant distress or impairment, despite no identifiable medical condition.
• Illness anxiety disorder (hypochondriasis) is characterized by excessive worry about having a serious illness, despite minimal or no physical symptoms.
• Conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder) involves neurological symptoms (e.g., paralysis, tremors) that cannot be explained by a medical condition, often linked to psychological factors.
• Factitious disorder (Munchausen syndrome) involves intentionally producing or faking physical or psychological symptoms to assume the sick role, often for attention or sympathy.

Motivation

• Factors that influence motivation
• Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in a behavior because it is personally rewarding.
• Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in a behavior to earn external rewards or avoid punishments.
• Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggests that individuals are motivated by a series of hierarchical needs, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

Attitudes

• Components of attitudes
• Cognitive component refers to beliefs and thoughts about an object or situation.
• Affective component involves emotional responses or feelings toward an object or situation.
• Behavioral component refers to actions or behaviors associated with an attitude.
• The link between attitudes and behavior
• Attitudes can influence behavior, but the relationship is complex and influenced by situational factors.
• Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort experienced when holding two conflicting beliefs or values, often leading individuals to change their attitudes to align with their behaviors.
Individual Behavior in Social Context
• Social facilitation is the tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence of others than when alone.
• Deindividuation refers to the loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in groups, often leading to impulsive and deviant behavior.
• Bystander effect is the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.
• Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to put forth less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.
• Group polarization is the tendency for group discussions to enhance the group's prevailing attitudes and opinions.
• Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon where the desire for harmony and conformity in a group results in irrational decision-making.

Learning & Behavior

• Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.
• Dishabituation is the recovery of a response that has undergone habituation when a new stimulus is presented.
• Associative Learning
• Classical conditioning is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.
• Unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
• Conditioned response (CR) is the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
• Extinction is the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
• Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response after a rest period following extinction.
• Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
• Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between different stimuli.
• Operant conditioning is a learning process in which behavior is modified by its consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.
• Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
• Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
• Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
• Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
• Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
• Positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
• Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
• Fixed ratio schedule is a reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after a specified number of responses.
• Variable ratio schedule is a reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of responses.
• Fixed interval schedule is a reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
• Variable interval schedule is a reinforcement schedule that rewards a response at unpredictable time intervals.
• Observational learning is the process of learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others.
• Modeling is the process of learning by observing and imitating the behavior of a model.
• Vicarious reinforcement is the process of learning through the observation of the consequences of others' behavior.
• Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated the influence of observational learning on aggression.

Attitude Change Factors

• Factors that affect attitude change
• Persuasion is the process of changing attitudes or behaviors through communication.
• Foot in the door technique involves making a small request followed by a larger request.
• Door in the face technique involves making a large request that is refused, followed by a smaller request.
• Low ball technique involves getting a commitment from a person and then changing the terms of the deal.
• Conformity is the tendency to change one's beliefs or behaviors to match those of others.
• Compliance is the act of conforming to a request or demand.
• Obedience is the act of following orders or instructions from an authority figure.
• Social influence is the process by which individuals change their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors in response to real or imagined pressure from others.

Self-Concept & Identity

• Self-esteem is an individual's overall subjective evaluation of their worth.
• Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task.
• Self-concept is the collection of beliefs about oneself, including attributes, roles, and identities.
• Self-identity is the way individuals perceive themselves and their place in the world.
• External locus of control refers to the belief that outcomes are determined by external factors, such as luck or the actions of others.
• Internal locus of control refers to the belief that outcomes are determined by one's own actions and decisions.

Attribution & Perception

• Attributional processes
• Attribution theory explains how individuals interpret and explain the causes of behavior.
• Internal attribution assigns the cause of behavior to personal factors, such as traits or abilities.
• External attribution assigns the cause of behavior to situational factors, such as environment or circumstances.
• Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overemphasize internal factors and underestimate external factors when explaining others' behavior.
• Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.
• How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others
• Looking glass self is the concept that a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others.
• Self-fulfilling prophecy is the phenomenon whereby a person's expectations about another individual lead to the fulfillment of those expectations.
• How perceptions of the environment shape our perceptions of others

Psychological Aspects of Prejudice

• The role of emotion in prejudice
• Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude towards an individual based solely on their membership in a social group.
• Discrimination is the unfair treatment of individuals based on their group membership.
• Stereotypes are generalized beliefs about a particular group of people.
• Implicit bias refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions unconsciously.
• The role of cognition in prejudice
• Social categorization is the process of classifying people into groups based on shared characteristics.
• In-group bias is the tendency to favor one's own group over others.
• Out-group homogeneity effect is the perception that members of an out-group are more similar to each other than members of one's own group.
• Out-group derogation is the tendency to view members of an out-group in a negative light.
• Scapegoating is the practice of unfairly blaming a person or group for problems or negative outcomes.

Self-Presentation & Communication

• Expressing and detecting emotion
• Emotional expression is the outward display of feelings, which can be influenced by cultural norms.
• Emotional detection involves recognizing and interpreting the emotional expressions of others.
• Presentation of self
• Self-presentation is the process of managing how one is perceived by others.
• Impression management is the conscious or unconscious effort to influence how others perceive us.
• Verbal communication involves the use of spoken or written language to convey messages.
• Nonverbal communication includes body language, facial expressions, and other forms of communication that do not involve words.

Social Behavior (Individual)

• Attraction is the force that draws people together.
• Aggression is behavior intended to harm another individual.
• Attachment is the emotional bond that forms between individuals.
• Altruism is selfless behavior intended to benefit others.
• Social support is the assistance and comfort provided by others.