Social Influence

• Social control is the regulation of individual behavior by social norms and rules.
• Peer pressure is the influence exerted by a peer group to encourage conformity to group norms.
• Conformity is the adjustment of individual behavior to align with group norms.
• Asch's experiments on conformity demonstrated the power of group pressure on individual decision-making.
• Obedience is the compliance with the commands of an authority figure.
• Milgram's experiments on obedience revealed the extent to which individuals would follow authority figures, even against their own ethical beliefs.

Group Dynamics

• Group Decision-Making Processes:
• Groupthink is a phenomenon where the desire for harmony in a group leads to irrational or dysfunctional decision-making.
• Group polarization is the tendency for group members to make more extreme decisions than individuals would make alone.
• Social facilitation is the tendency for individuals to perform better on tasks when in the presence of others.
• Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

Norms & Deviance

• Normative behavior refers to actions that align with societal expectations and norms.
• Social norms are the accepted standards of behavior within a society.
• Sanctions are penalties or rewards for adhering to or violating social norms.
• Folkways are informal norms that govern everyday behavior, while mores are more serious norms that carry moral significance.
• Laws are formalized norms that are enforced by the state.
• Taboos are strong prohibitions against certain behaviors that are considered morally or ethically unacceptable.
• Anomie is a state of normlessness that can occur during periods of social change.
• Deviance refers to behavior that violates social norms.
Aspects of collective behavior:
• Collective behavior refers to the actions and behaviors of a group of people in response to a shared event or situation.
• Riots are spontaneous and violent outbursts of collective behavior, often in response to perceived injustices or grievances.
• Fads are temporary, widely adopted behaviors or trends that quickly gain popularity and then fade away.
• Mass hysteria is a phenomenon where a group of people exhibit similar symptoms or behaviors in response to a perceived threat or fear.

Socialization

• Socialization is the lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of their culture and society.
• Agents of socialization:
  • Family is the primary agent of socialization, shaping an individual's early values and beliefs.
  • Schools play a crucial role in teaching formal knowledge and social skills.
  • Peers provide a sense of belonging and influence behavior during adolescence.
  • Media serves as a powerful agent of socialization, shaping perceptions and attitudes through various forms of communication.
  • Religion can influence values, beliefs, and behaviors, providing a moral framework for individuals.

Identity (Social Aspects)

• Different types of identities:
  • Personal identity refers to an individual's unique characteristics and experiences.
  • Social identity is derived from an individual's membership in social groups (e.g., race, ethnicity, gender).
  • Role identity is based on the roles individuals play in society (e.g., parent, student, employee).
  • Collective identity refers to the shared identity of a group based on common characteristics or experiences.
• Race is a socially constructed category based on perceived physical differences.
• Ethnicity refers to shared cultural practices, perspectives, and distinctions that set apart one group of people from another.
• Influence of groups:
• Reference groups are groups that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their behavior.
• In-groups are groups to which an individual feels a sense of belonging, while out-groups are those to which they do not belong.
• Social comparison is the process of comparing oneself to others to evaluate one's own abilities and opinions.
• Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation:
• Cultural norms and values shape individual identities by providing a framework for behavior and expectations.
• Socialization processes, such as family upbringing and education, contribute to the development of personal and social identities.

Prejudice & Bias

• Prejudice refers to preconceived opinions or attitudes about individuals or groups, often based on stereotypes.
• Biases
• Implicit bias refers to unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect understanding, actions, and decisions.
• Explicit bias refers to the attitudes or beliefs that one endorses at a conscious level.
• Confirmation bias can lead individuals to favor information that confirms their existing beliefs about a group.
• Discrimination is the unfair treatment of individuals based on their group membership, which can manifest in various forms, including individual and institutional discrimination.
• Social categorization is the process of classifying people into groups based on shared characteristics, which can lead to in-group bias and out-group derogation.
• Belief perseverance is the tendency to hold on to one's beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence.
• Processes that contribute to prejudice:
• Power is the ability to influence or control others, often leading to the perpetuation of stereotypes and discrimination.
• Prestige refers to the respect and admiration that an individual or group commands, which can influence perceptions and treatment of others.
• Class refers to the social stratification based on economic status, which can impact access to resources and opportunities, contributing to systemic discrimination.
• Stigma is the social disapproval or discrimination against individuals based on perceivable social characteristics, often leading to marginalization.
• Ethnocentrism is the belief in the superiority of one's own culture or ethnic group, often accompanied by a disdain for other cultures.
• Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that individual's own culture, rather than judged against the standards of another.

Social Interaction & Structure

• Elements of Social Interaction
• Social roles are the expected behaviors associated with a particular position in society.
• Status refers to a person's social position within a group or society, which can be achieved or ascribed.
• Ascribed status is a social position assigned at birth or involuntarily later in life, such as race, gender, or ethnicity.
• Achieved status is a social position that an individual attains as a result of their actions, efforts, or accomplishments.
• Role conflict occurs when an individual faces competing demands from different roles, while role strain arises from conflicting expectations within a single role.
• Role exit is the process of disengaging from a role that has been central to one's identity.
• Primary groups are small, intimate groups characterized by close, personal relationships (e.g., family, close friends).
• Secondary groups are larger, more impersonal groups that are task-oriented and less emotionally connected (e.g., coworkers, classmates).
• A dyad is a social group consisting of two members.
• A triad is a social group consisting of three members, which can lead to more complex dynamics than a dyad.
• Social networks are the web of social relationships that connect individuals and groups.
• Utilitarian organizations are structured to achieve specific goals and provide material rewards (e.g., businesses, government agencies).
• Normative organizations are formed to pursue shared interests or goals, often providing intangible rewards (e.g., religious groups, political parties).
• Coercive organizations are characterized by involuntary membership and strict control (e.g., prisons, mental institutions).
• Bureaucracies are formal organizations characterized by a hierarchical structure, clear rules and procedures, and a division of labor.

Self-Presentation (Sociological Aspect)

• The dramaturgical approach to self-presentation suggests that individuals perform roles in social interactions, using impression management to influence how they are perceived by others.
• Front stage refers to the public performance of self, where individuals present themselves in a manner that aligns with societal expectations.
• Back stage refers to the private, less formal aspects of self-presentation, where individuals can relax and be themselves without the pressure of public scrutiny.
• Impression management is the conscious or unconscious effort to influence how others perceive us, often through self-presentation strategies such as self-disclosure, flattery, and conformity to social norms.